Ancient India: "A Tapestry of Time"
Ancient India
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.[1] The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE;[2] by 4500 BCE, settled life had increasingly spread,[2] and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley civilization, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India.[3] Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centers to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration. The Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their large collections of hymns (Vedas). Their varna system evolved into the caste system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (mahajanapadas). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts,[4] including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. The latter was synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism.
History
Paleolithic
Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago.[25][26][27] This dating is based on the known presence of Homo erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan.[26][28] Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of fluvial sediments, have not been independently verified.[27][29]
The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis, from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago.[26][29] Older fossil finds have been claimed but are considered unreliable.[29] Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that the occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.[29][27]
Bronze Age (c. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE)
Indus Valley Civilisation
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The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. The Indus Valley region was one of three early cradles of civilization of the Old World; the Indus Valley civilization was the most expansive,[39] and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.[40]
The civilization was primarily centered in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus River basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River basin. The mature Indus civilization flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilization on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as Harappa, Ganweriwal, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage systems, and multi-storeyed houses and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organization. Civilization also developed an Indus script, which is presently undeciphered.[42] This is the reason why the Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain.[43] After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of the Ganga-Yamuna basin.[44]
Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE)
Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)
Starting in 1900 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration.[47][48] The Vedic period is the period when the Vedas were composed, the liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of northwest India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.[49]
The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.[50] The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE,[51][52] contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.
Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)
The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw the formation of the Śramaṇa movement, from which Jainism and Buddhism originated. The first Upanishads were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanization"[note 1] started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.[71] The foundations for the "second urbanization" were laid before 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.[72]
The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Maurya Empire, was a distinct cultural area,[73] with new states arising after 500 BCE.[74][75] It was influenced by the Vedic culture,[76] but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.[73] It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".[77] In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.[71]
Classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 650 CE)
The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.[126] The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.[127] During this period, India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.[128][129]
Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 320 CE)
Shunga Empire
The Shungas originated from Magadha and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the last Maurya emperor. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors, such as Bhagabhadra, also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar.[130]
Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;[131] inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.[132] The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga, the Satavahana dynasty of Deccan, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.
Satavahana Empire
The Śātavāhanas were based in Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty but declared independence with its decline.
The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role in protecting a large part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas. In particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.[133]
Trade and travel to India
Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India with the Old World;
carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilizations of the Old
World and India. The land routes are red, and the water routes are blue.The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal port Muziris had established itself as a major spice trade center from as early as 3,000 BCE, according to Sumerian records. Jewish traders arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India as early as 562 BCE.[134] The Greco-Roman world was followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India routes.[135] During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports such as Aden.[136] During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and Ethiopians who became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea. Indian merchants involved in the spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the native inhabitants.[137] Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road in the 1st or 2nd century CE.[138] Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit the local economy through estate management, craftsmanship, and promotion of trading activities. Buddhism in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art, and literacy.[139]
Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a Tocharian-speaking tribe,[140] one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation.[141][142] By the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan,[143] and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.[144]
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority.[145][146] Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:
The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus Valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan rule.[148] The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as Pax Kushana.
By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.[149][150]
Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE)
Gupta Empire
Main article: Gupta Empire
Further information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala, Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra
Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire around 420 CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.
The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting.[151] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana. The Gupta period marked a watershed in Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much of India under their leadership.[152] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.[153][154] The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as Pax Gupta.
The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Alchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital at Bamiyan.[155] However, much of southern India including Deccan was largely unaffected by these events.[156][157]
Vakataka Empire
Main article: Vakataka Empire
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India, and succeeded by the Vishnukundina dynasty.
The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture, and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of the Vakataka emperor, Harishena.[158][159]
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The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments built under the Vakatakas.
Buddhist monks pray in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.
Kamarupa Kingdom
Main article: Kamarupa Kingdom Copper Plate Seal of Kamarupa Kings at Madan Kamdev ruins.
Samudragupta's 4th-century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam)[160] and Davaka (Central Assam)[161] as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh, and, at times Purnea, and parts of West Bengal.[162]
Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–900 CE), and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura.[163] In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.[164] The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks and established the Kamata kingdom.[165]
Pallava Empire
Main article: Pallava EmpireThe Shore Temple (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) at Mahabalipuram was built by Narasimhavarman II.
The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries, were, alongside the Guptas of the North, great patronizers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called Grantha.[166] Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram, and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by the fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.[167]
Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region until the end of the 9th century.[168]
Kadamba Empire
Main article: Kadamba Empire Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top, Doddagaddavalli.
Kadambas originated from Karnataka and was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with the help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom the kings of the Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi, and Kadambas of Hangal).
Empire of Harsha
Main articles: Harsha and Pushyabhuti dynasty
Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, who were members of the Vardhana dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-day Haryana. Coin of Emperor Harsha, c. 606–647 CE.[169]
After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.[170] At the height of his power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.[171]
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a center of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists, and religious visitors.[171] During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from Surya worship.[172] The Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favorable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.[171] His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (White Mansion).[173][174]
Early medieval period (mid-6th c.–1200 CE)
Main articles: Medieval India, Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent, and Tripartite Struggle
Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE.[126] This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism,[175] which began after the end of the Gupta Empire,[175] and the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century CE;[175] the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India[176] and the end of the Later Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century.
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism expanded in royal courts.[177] This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
In the 7th century CE, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaṭṭa's contribution to the decline of Buddhism in India.[178] In the 8th century, Adi Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying the main characteristics of the current thoughts in Hinduism.[179][180][181] He was a critic of both Buddhism and the Minamsa school of Hinduism;[182][183][184][185] and founded Mathas (monasteries) for the spread and development of Advaita Vedanta.[186] Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh (modern Pakistan) in 711 CE witnessed a further decline of Buddhism.[187]
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Chauhans of Rajputana, these states were some of the earliest Rajput kingdoms;[188] while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the Western Chalukyas.[189] During this period, the Chaulukya dynasty emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the Dilwara Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki vav[190] in the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and their capital Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.
The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century.[191] Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 CE until 1003, and was followed by the Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits King Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.[192][193][194]
The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as being patrons of art and literature.
Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya, and built by the third ruler of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th century CE.
Chalukya Empire
Main article: Chalukya Empire
The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce, and the development of a new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.
Rashtrakuta Empire
Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire
Founded by Dantidurga around 753,[195] the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for almost two centuries.[196] At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.[197][198]
The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.[199] Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.[196][200] Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
The Arab traveler Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.[201] The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great South Indian mathematician Mahāvīra had a huge impact on medieval South Indian mathematicians.[202] The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronized men of letters in a variety of languages.[196]
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
Main article: Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Umayyad campaigns in India.[203] Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja. Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border of Sindh in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the Narmada River in the south.[204] The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.
By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Tomaras of Haryana, the Chauhans of Rajputana,[205] and the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal.[citation needed]
Gahadavala dynasty
Main article: Gahadavala dynasty
Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during the 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanasi.[207]
Khayaravala dynasty
Main article: Khayaravala dynasty
The Khayaravala dynasty, ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Bihar and Jharkhand, during the 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Khayaragarh in Shahabad district. Pratapdhavala and Shri Pratapa were kings of the dynasty.[208]Rohtasgarh Fort
Pala Empire Excavated ruins of Nalanda, a center of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193 CE.
Main article: Pala Empire
The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I.[209][210][211] It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of Shashanka's Gauda Kingdom.[212]
The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism,[213] they also patronized Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[214] The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the northwest.[214]
The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.[215] Dharmapala founded the Vikramashila and revived Nalanda,[214] considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.[215][216] The Palas also built many viharas. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.
Cholas
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century CE and established the greatest empire South India had seen.[217] They successfully united South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.[191] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola, and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic, and cultural power in South Asia and Southeast Asia.[218][219] Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,[220] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.[221]
They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.[222] Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.[223] Under the Cholas, South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun at an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculptures in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.[224] 
Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple is the world's largest functioning Hindu temple.[225] present in Tamil Nadu, India. The temple is a significant archaeological and epigraphical site, providing a historic window into the early and mid-medieval South Indian society and culture. The temple is mentioned in the Ramayana,[226] Mahabharatha, Sangam literature(500 BCE to 300 CE[227]), and Various books. Beyond the ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, and these stone inscriptions are from late 100 BCE to 100 CE.[citation needed] Hence, making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India.
Western Chalukya Empire
Main article: Western Chalukya Empire
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.[228] Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control.[228] During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty, and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.[229]
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well-known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.[230] This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II.[231][232]
The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans,[233][234] the rule of the Delhi sultanate, and the growth of other dynasties and empires, built upon the military technology of the Sultanate.[235]
Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of Turkic, Turko-Indian[237], and Pashtun origins.[238] It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the early 16th century.[239] In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.[240] The subsequent Mamluk dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states.[239]
The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240).
While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.[241] However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.[242]
The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of Alauddin Khalji. A major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.[243] By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[244][243]
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[245] The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.[246] The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the Lodi dynasty, it was but a shadow of the former.
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of the Sangama Dynasty,[247] which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire,[248] and the Pandyan Empire.[249] The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the South Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present-day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[250]
In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra River and earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.[251][252]
Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.[253] The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successfully against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.[254] Italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.[255] Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.[256] He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became the overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.[257][258][259]
The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.[260] The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") and Hindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.[261] The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva) but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and designated Varaha (an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.[262] Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.[263] The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati.[264] A Sanskrit word, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").[265] The kings patronized the saints of the Advaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.[266]
The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple-building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired the architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji, and Jyeṣṭhadeva.[269] Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.[270] The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.[271]
Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After the death of Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of the Vijayanagara Empire.[272] Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until he died in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.[273][274][275] During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga, and the Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.[273]
Other kingdoms
For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After the fall of the Pala Empire, the Chero dynasty ruled much of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand from the 12th CE to the 18th CE.[276][277][278] The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.[279]
In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab. The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar reconstructed the Gwalior Fort.[280] During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.[280][281] The next great Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. However, his defeat in the Battle of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.[280] The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal emperor Akbar, with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded Udaipur, which became the new capital of the Mewar kingdom. His son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor Fort.[282]
In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for the Vijayanagara.[283] In the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power,[284] resulting in it being split into five small Deccan sultanates.[285] In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year; Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528.[286] Although generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.
In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.[287] In Northeast India, the Ahom Kingdom was a major power for six centuries;[288][289] led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts.[290] Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from its seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.[291][292][293]
The Sultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian, and Bengali Muslim elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states, including Odisha in the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over Kamrup and Kamata in the northeast and Jaunpur and Bihar in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal. Its decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire, followed by Mughal conquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms.
Bhakti movement and Sikhism
The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism[294] and later revolutionized in Sikhism.[295] It originated in seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[294] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[296] The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.[297][298][299] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to the absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[300][301]
Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru,[302], and the ten successive Sikh gurus. After the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.[303][304][305]
Buddhism in India flourished in the Himalayan kingdoms of Namgyal Kingdom in Ladakh, Sikkim Kingdom in Sikkim, and Chutia Kingdom in Arunachal Pradesh in the Late medieval period.
Publisher: Rakha Ahnafa
Source: Wikipedia
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